Genetic tool for the transformation of clostridium bacteria

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to a genetic tool comprising at least two different nucleic acids allowing the transformation, by homologous recombination, of a bacterium of the genus  Clostridium , typically of a solventogenic bacterium.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/768,018, filed Apr. 13, 2018, now U.S. Pat. No. 11,746,346, which is the U.S. national stage application of International Patent Application No. PCT/FR2016/052663, filed Oct. 14, 2016.

The Sequence Listing for this application is labeled “Seq-List.xml” which was created on Aug. 28, 2023 and is 132,791 bytes. The entire content of the sequence listing is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

The present invention relates to a genetic tool comprising at least two different nucleic acids allowing the transformation by homologous recombination of a bacterium of the genus Clostridium, typically of a solventogenic bacterium of the genus Clostridium.

TECHNOLOGICAL BACKGROUND

The bacteria belonging to the genus Clostridium, phylum Firmicutes, are obligate anaerobic Gram-positive bacilli capable of forming endospores. This genus contains numerous species studied on account of their pathogenic nature or their industrial and medical interest. For example, Clostridium tetani, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium perfringens and Clostridium difficile are the agents responsible for tetanus, botulism, gas gangrene and pseudomembranous colitis, respectively. In parallel, other species such as Clostridium acetobutylicum, Clostridium butyricum and Clostridium beijerinckii, which are non-pathogenic to humans, are used in fermentation. Lastly, Clostridium novyi and Clostridium sporogenes have recently been used in studies aimed at the development of anti-cancer therapies.

The Clostridium species of industrial interest are capable of producing solvents from a wide variety of sugars and substrates ranging from glucose to cellulose. The solvent-producing Clostridium bacteria are characterized by diauxic growth. Acids (acetic and butyric) are produced during the exponential growth phase. Then, when cell growth ceases and the bacteria enter the stationary phase, they produce solvents.

Most solventogenic Clostridium strains produce acetone, butanol and ethanol as final products. These strains are called “ABE strains”. This is for example the case of strains C. acetobutylicum ATCC824 and C. beijerinckii NCIMB 8052. Other strains are also able to reduce acetone to isopropanol, and are called “IBE strains”. This is the case for example of strain C. beijerinckii DSM 6423 (NRRL B593) which has in its genome an adh gene encoding a primary/secondary alcohol-dehydrogenase which allows the reduction of acetone to isopropanol.

Isopropanol production by C. acetobutylicum ATCC824 is possible after introduction of a plasmid for expressing the adh gene from C. beijerinckii DSM 6423. Such a genetically modified strain performs in the same way as strain DSM 6423. This performance can be improved after overexpression within an operon structure of the ctfA, ctfB and adc genes encoding the CoA-transferases involved in the reassimilation of acids, and acetoacetate decarboxylase, respectively (Collas et al., 2012). The introduction of a plasmid containing these genes modifies the fermentation profile of strain ATCC824 to produce an IBE mixture. However, the presence of antibiotic in the growth medium is required to maintain this genetic construction, making it impossible to use this strain for industrial applications.

Despite the undeniable interest of bacteria of the genus Clostridium, little work has been done to study and/or modify their metabolism due to the difficulties of obtaining genetically modified strains. The most robust systems are based on homologous recombination events allowing precise and stable modification of the genome. The homologous recombination frequencies observed in Clostridium being very low, however, selection markers (e.g., an antibiotic resistance gene) and counter-selection markers (e.g., a gene encoding a toxin) proved to be necessary. Two tools have been recently developed (Al-Hinai et al., 2012; Cartman et al., 2012), each based on the use of a single plasmid. Although innovative, these systems have disadvantages. The first system has the drawback of leaving at the modification site an FRT cassette (used during excision of the selectable marker) that can alter the genetic context of the mutant and prevent re-use of the tool to carry out a great number of modifications. These drawbacks are well-known to persons skilled in the art. The second system, requiring two sequential homologous recombination events, cannot be used to modify essential regions of the genome. A tool involving the sequential use of two plasmids, one of them encoding the meganuclease I-SceI, which is capable of inducing breaks in double-stranded DNA at specific target sites and of promoting homologous recombination events, was then developed (Zhang et al., 2015). Here too, the modification of certain essential genes is made impossible by the need to carry out two sequential homologous recombination events. As of today, the latest generation of tools developed (Wang et al., 2015; Xu et al., 2015) is based on the CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) technology, which works in a manner similar to the RNA interference observed in eukaryotes (Barrangou et al., 2007). The tools described by Wang et al. and Xu et al., adapted to C. beijerinckii and C. cellulolyticum, respectively, are based on the use of a single plasmid. Xu et al. use a modified version of the Cas9 enzyme creating single-strand breaks instead of double-strand breaks. Both of the CRISPR technology-based tools available have the major disadvantage of significantly limiting the size of the nucleic acid of interest (and thus the number of coding sequences or genes) that can be inserted into the bacterial genome (about 1.8 kb at best according to Xu et al.).

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The objective of the present invention is to provide a genetic tool adapted to the genus Clostridium as a whole, in particular to the solventogenic bacteria of the genus Clostridium, making it possible for the first time to modify the bacterial genome in order to allow the use of bacteria of the genus Clostridium on an industrial scale.

The invention thus relates to a genetic tool allowing the transformation by homologous recombination of a bacterium of the genus Clostridium, preferably a solventogenic bacterium of the genus Clostridium, characterized in that it comprises at least two different nucleic acids. This tool is for example capable of modifying a region of the genome of the bacterium of the genus Clostridium including a sequence essential to bacterial survival, or of allowing the insertion of large fragments of nucleic acid sequences, which is impossible using the existing tools.

A first object of the invention thus relates to a genetic tool allowing the transformation by homologous recombination of a solventogenic bacterium of the genus Clostridium characterized in that it comprises:

-   -   a first nucleic acid encoding at least Cas9, wherein the Cas9         coding sequence is placed under the control of a promoter, and     -   at least a second nucleic acid containing a repair template         allowing, by a homologous recombination mechanism, the         replacement of a portion of the Cas9-targeted bacterial DNA by a         sequence of interest,         and in that i) at least one of said nucleic acids further         encodes one or more guide RNAs (gRNAs), or ii) the genetic tool         further comprises one or more guide RNAs, each guide RNA         comprising a Cas9-enzyme-binding RNA structure and a sequence         complementary to the targeted portion of the bacterial DNA.

The invention further relates to a process for transforming and/or genetically modifying by homologous recombination a bacterium of the genus Clostridium, typically a solventogenic bacterium of the genus Clostridium, characterized in that it comprises a step of introduction into the bacterium of a genetic tool according to the invention. The invention also relates to the bacteria of the genus Clostridium thus transformed and/or genetically modified.

The inventors also disclose a kit for transforming and/or genetically modifying a bacterium of the genus Clostridium, or for producing at least one solvent, for example a mixture of solvents, using a bacterium of the genus Clostridium, comprising the components of the genetic tool according to the invention, and optionally, in particular, one or more inducers adapted to the selected inducible promoter(s) used within the tool.

Also disclosed are the uses of the genetic tool according to the invention, of the process for transforming and/or genetically modifying by homologous recombination a bacterium of the genus Clostridium, of the bacterium thus transformed and/or genetically modified, for the production of a solvent or a mixture of solvents on an industrial scale, preferably acetone, butanol, ethanol, isopropanol or a mixture thereof, typically an isopropanol/butanol mixture.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) refers in bacteria and archaea to loci of genes having an immune defence role against phages and plasmids. The CRISPR-Cas9 system is based essentially on the combination of a Cas9 protein inducing double-strand breaks in the target genome and of a guide RNA (gRNA) responsible for the specificity of the cleavage site. This ability to create targeted double-strand breaks in the DNA makes it possible to promote the homologous recombination events necessary to introduce mutations into the genome of the strains of interest. Cell viability depends on the integrity of the genome. The bacterium must repair any break in its DNA, whether by a non-homologous end joining mechanism, or by a homologous recombination mechanism requiring a repair template. By providing the cell such a template, it is then possible to modify the region corresponding to the break site (FIG. 2 ). The ability of CRISPR to make double-strand breaks in DNA molecules has allowed its recent use as a genetic tool in various organisms, in particular in Streptococcus pyogenes, in which it was first characterized, in E. coli, and within eukaryotic cells (Jiang et al., 2013; Cong et al., 2013; Hwang et al., 2013; Hsu et al., 2013). It was recently used in Clostridium beijerinckii and Clostridium cellulolyticum with the help of genetic tools which allowed only limited modification of the bacterial genome, which is impractical on an industrial scale (Wang et al., 2015; Xu et al., 2015).

A genetic tool allowing the transformation by homologous recombination of a bacterium of the genus Clostridium and comprising at least two different nucleic acids is for the first time disclosed in the present text. The inventors have demonstrated that this tool makes it possible to transform and/or genetically modify the solventogenic bacteria of the genus Clostridium, in a manner sufficiently effective to make them especially useful from an industrial perspective, thus meeting a long-expressed need.

A particular genetic tool according to the invention, allowing the transformation by homologous recombination of a bacterium of the genus Clostridium, comprises:

-   -   a first nucleic acid encoding at least Cas9, wherein the Cas9         coding sequence is placed under the control of a promoter, and     -   at least a second nucleic acid containing a repair template         allowing, by a homologous recombination mechanism, the         replacement of a portion of the Cas9-targeted bacterial DNA by a         sequence of interest,         given that i) at least one of said nucleic acids further encodes         one or more guide RNAs (gRNAs) or that ii) the genetic tool         further comprises one or more guide RNAs. In this tool each         guide RNA comprises a Cas9-enzyme-binding RNA structure and a         sequence complementary to the targeted portion of the bacterial         DNA.

The expression “bacterium of the genus Clostridium” is intended to mean in particular the Clostridium species of industrial interest, typically the solventogenic bacteria of the genus Clostridium. The expression “bacterium of the genus Clostridium” includes the wild-type bacteria as well as the strains derived therefrom genetically modified with the aim of improving their performance (for example overexpressing the ctfA, ctfB and adc genes) without having been exposed to the CRISPR system.

The expression “Clostridium species of industrial interest” is intended to mean the species capable of producing, by fermentation, solvents from monosaccharides such as glucose, xylose, fructose or mannose, from polysaccharides such as cellulose or hemicelluloses, from acids such as butyric acid or acetic acid, or from any other carbon source assimilable and usable by the bacteria of the genus Clostridium (CO, CO₂ and methanol, for example). Examples of solventogenic bacteria of interest are the bacteria of the genus Clostridium which produce acetone, butanol, ethanol and/or isopropanol, such as the strains identified in the literature as “ABE strain” [strains which produce acetone, butanol and ethanol as fermentation products] and “IBE strain” [strains which produce isopropanol (by reduction of acetone), butanol and ethanol as fermentation products]. Solventogenic bacteria of the genus Clostridium can be selected from C. acetobutylicum, C. cellulolyticum, C. phytofermentans, C. beijerinckii, C. saccharobutylicum, C. saccharoperbutylacetonicum, C. sporogenes, C. butyricum, C. aurantibutyricum and C. tyrobutyricum, preferably from C. acetobutylicum, C. beijerinckii, C. butyricum and C. tyrobutyricum and C. cellulolyticum, and more preferably from C. acetobutylicum and C. beijerinckii.

In a particular embodiment, the bacterium of the genus Clostridium concerned is an “ABE strain”, preferably strain C. acetobutylicum ATCC824 or strain C. beijerinckii NCIMB 8052.

In another particular embodiment, the bacterium of the genus Clostridium concerned is an “IBE strain”, preferably strain C. beijerinckii DSM 6423 (also identified as strain NRRL B593).

The CRISPR system contains two distinct components, i.e., i) an endonuclease, in the present case the nuclease associated with the CRISPR system (Cas or “CRISPR-associated protein”), Cas9, and ii) a guide RNA. The guide RNA is in the form of a chimeric RNA which consists of the combination of a bacterial CRISPR RNA (crRNA) and a tracrRNA (trans-activating CRISPR RNA) (Jinek et al., Science 2012 —see FIG. 3 ). The gRNA combines in a single transcript the targeting specificity of the crRNA corresponding to the “spacer sequences” which serve as guides for the Cas proteins, and the conformational properties of the tracrRNA. When the gRNA and the Cas9 protein are expressed simultaneously in the cell, the target genomic sequence can be permanently modified or interrupted. The modification is advantageously guided by a repair template.

The genetic tool according to the invention comprises a first nucleic acid encoding at least Cas9. The term “Cas9” is intended to mean a Cas9 protein (also called Csn1 or Csx12) or a functional protein, peptide or polypeptide fragment thereof, “functional” meaning capable of interacting with the one or more guide RNAs and of carrying out the enzyme (nuclease) activity which enables it to create the double-strand break in the DNA of the target genome. “Cas9” can thus indicate a modified protein, for example truncated in order to remove the protein domains not essential to the predefined functions of the protein, in particular the domains not necessary for interaction with the one or more gRNAs.

The sequence encoding Cas9 (the entire protein or a fragment thereof) as used within the context of the invention can be obtained from any known Cas9 protein (Makarova et al., 2011). Examples of Cas9 proteins useful in the present invention include, but are not limited to, the Cas9 proteins from Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus thermophilus, Streptococcus mutans, Campylobacter jejuni, Francisella novicida and Neisseria meningitidis. Other Cas9 proteins useful in the present invention are also described in the article by Fonfara et al., 2013.

In a particular embodiment, the Cas9 protein, or a functional protein, peptide or polypeptide fragment thereof, encoded by one of the nucleic acids of the genetic tool according to the invention comprises, or consists of, the amino acid sequence SEQ ID NO: 1, or any other amino acid sequence having at least 50%, preferably at least 60%, identity therewith, and containing at the least the two aspartic acids (“D”) occupying positions 10 (“D10”) and 840 (“D840”) of the amino acid sequence SEQ ID NO: 1.

In a preferred embodiment, Cas9 comprises, or consists of, the Cas9 protein (NCBI accession number: WP_010922251.1, SEQ ID NO: 1), encoded by the cas9 gene from strain Streptococcus pyogenes M1 GAS (NCBI accession number: NC_002737.2 SPy_1046, SEQ ID NO: 2) or a version thereof having undergone optimization (“optimized version”) giving rise to a transcript containing the codons used preferentially by the bacteria of the genus Clostridium, typically the codons rich in adenine (“A”) and thymine (“T”) bases, allowing facilitated expression of the Cas9 protein within this bacterial genus. These optimized codons respect the codon usage bias, well-known to persons skilled in the art, specific to each bacterial strain.

In the peptide sequences disclosed in this document, the amino acids are represented by their single-letter code according to the following nomenclature: C: cysteine; D: aspartic acid; E: glutamic acid; F: phenylalanine; G: glycine; H: histidine; I: isoleucine; K: lysine; L: leucine; M: methionine; N: asparagine; P: proline; Q: glutamine; R: arginine; S: serine; T: threonine; V: valine; W: tryptophan and Y: tyrosine.

According to a particular embodiment, the Cas9 domain consists of an entire Cas9 protein, preferably the Cas9 protein from Streptococcus pyogenes, or an optimized version thereof.

The Cas9 coding sequence present within one of the nucleic acids of the genetic tool according to the invention is placed under the control of a promoter. This promoter can be a constitutive promoter or an inducible promoter. In a preferred embodiment, the promoter controlling Cas9 expression is an inducible promoter.

Examples of constitutive promoters useful within the context of the present invention can be selected from the promoter of the thl gene, of the ptb gene, of the adc gene, of the BCS operon, or a derivative thereof, preferably a functional but shorter (truncated) derivative such as the “miniPthl” derivative of the thl gene promoter from C. acetobutylicum (Dong et al., 2012), or any other promoter well-known to persons skilled in the art, allowing the expression of a protein within Clostridium.

Examples of inducible promoters useful within the context of the present invention can be selected for example from a promoter whose expression is controlled by the transcriptional repressor TetR, for example the promoter of the tetA gene (tetracycline resistance gene originally present on the E. co/i transposon Tn10); a promoter whose expression is controlled by L-arabinose, for example the promoter of gene ptk (see Zhang J. et al., 2015), preferably in combination with the araR regulator expression cassette from C. acetobutylicum in order to construct an ARAi system (see Zhang J. et al., 2015); a promoter whose expression is controlled by laminaribiose (β-1,3 glucose dimer), for example the celC gene promoter, preferably immediately followed by the repressor gene glyR3 and the gene of interest (see Mearls E B et al. (2015)) or the celC gene promoter (see Newcomb M. et al., 2011); a promoter whose expression is controlled by lactose, for example the bgaL gene promoter, preferably immediately followed by the AdhE1 (aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase) gene (see Banerjee et al., 2014); a promoter whose expression is controlled by xylose, for example the xylB gene promoter (see Nariya H et al., 2011); and a promoter whose expression is controlled by UV exposure, for example the bcn promoter (see Dupuy et al., 2005).

A promoter derived from one of the promoters described above, preferably a functional but shorter (truncated) derivative can also be advantageously used in the context of the invention.

Other inducible promoters useful in the present invention are also described for example in the articles by Ransom E M et al. (2015), Currie D H et al. (2013), D′Urzo N et al. (2013) and Hartman A H et al. (2011).

A preferred inducible promoter is an anhydrotetracycline (aTc)-inducible promoter derived from tetA (aTc is less toxic than tetracycline and capable of releasing the inhibition of the transcriptional repressor TetR at lower concentration), selected from Pcm-2tetO1 and Pcm-2tetO2/1 (Dong et al., 2012).

Another preferred inducible promoter is a xylose-inducible promoter derived from xylB, for example the xylB promoter from Clostridium difficile 630 (Nariya et al., 2011).

The inducible promoters as disclosed in the present invention make it possible to advantageously control the action of the enzyme and to facilitate the selection of transformants having undergone the desired genetic modifications.

The term “guide RNA” or “gRNA” refers within the meaning of the invention to an RNA molecule capable of interacting with “Cas9” in order to guide it towards a target region of the bacterial chromosome. The specificity of the break is determined by the gRNA. As explained above, each gRNA comprises two regions:

-   -   a first region (commonly called the “SDS” region), at the 5′ end         of the gRNA, which is complementary to the target chromosomal         region and which imitates the crRNA of the endogenous CRISPR         system, and     -   a second region (commonly called the “handle” region), at the 3′         end of the gRNA, which mimics the base-pairing interactions         between the tracrRNA (trans-activating crRNA) and the crRNA of         the endogenous CRISPR system and has a double-stranded stem-loop         structure ending in the 3′ direction with an essentially         single-stranded sequence. This second region is essential to the         binding of the gRNA to Cas9.

The first region of the gRNA (SDS region) varies according to the targeted chromosomal sequence.

The SDS region of the gRNA which is complementary to the target chromosomal region comprises at least 1 nucleotide, preferably at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 or 40 nucleotides, typically between 1 and 40 nucleotides. Preferably, this region has a length of 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 or 30 nucleotides.

The second region of the gRNA (handle region) has a stem-loop (or hairpin) structure. The handle regions of the different gRNAs do not depend on the selected chromosomal target.

According to a particular embodiment, the handle region comprises, or consists of, a sequence of at least 1 nucleotide, preferably at least 1, 50, 100, 200, 500 and 1000 nucleotides, typically between 1 and 1000 nucleotides. Preferably, this region has a length of 40 to 120 nucleotides.

The overall length of a gRNA is in general from 50 to 1000 nucleotides, preferably from 80 to 200 nucleotides, and more particularly preferably from 90 to 120 nucleotides. According to a particular embodiment, a gRNA as used in the present invention has a length ranging between 95 and 110 nucleotides, for example a length of about 100 or about 110 nucleotides.

Persons skilled in the art can easily define, by using well-known techniques, the sequence and the structure of the gRNAs according to the chromosomal region to be targeted (see for example the article by DiCarlo et al., 2013).

The targeted DNA region/portion/sequence within the bacterial chromosome can correspond to a portion of non-coding DNA or a portion of coding DNA. In a particular embodiment, the targeted portion of the bacterial DNA comprises one or more genes or gene portion(s) essential to bacterial survival or one or more genes or DNA sequences whose inactivation allows the selection of bacteria having integrated the nucleic acid(s) of interest.

Particular examples of a targeted DNA portion within a bacterium of the genus Clostridium are the sequences used in the experimental section. They are for example the sequences encoding the upp (SEQ ID NO: 3) and adhE1 (SEQ ID NO: 4) genes.

The targeted DNA region/portion/sequence is followed by a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) sequence which plays a part in Cas9 binding.

The SDS region of given gRNA is 100% identical or at least 80% identical, preferably at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% identical to the targeted DNA region/portion/sequence within the bacterial chromosome and is capable of hybridizing with all or part of the complementary sequence of said region/portion/sequence, typically with a sequence comprising at least 1 nucleotide, preferably at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 or 40 nucleotides, typically between 1 and 40 nucleotides, preferably with a sequence comprising 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 or 30 nucleotides.

In the process according to the invention, one or more gRNAs can be used simultaneously. These different gRNAs can target identical or different, preferably different, chromosomal regions.

The gRNAs can be introduced into the bacterial cell in the form of gRNA molecules (mature or precursors), in the form of precursors or in the form of one or more nucleic acids encoding said gRNAs. The gRNAs are preferably introduced into the bacterial cell in the form of one or more nucleic acids encoding said gRNAs.

When the one or more gRNAs are introduced into the cell directly in the form of RNA molecules, these gRNAs (mature or precursors) can contain modified nucleotides or chemical modifications allowing them, for example, to increase their resistance to nucleases and thus to increase their lifespan in the cell. They can in particular comprise at least one modified or unnatural nucleotide such as, for example, a nucleotide comprising a modified base, such as inosine, methyl-5-deoxycytidine, dimethylamino-5-deoxyuridine, deoxyuridine, diamino-2,6-purine, bromo-5-deoxyuridine or any other modified base allowing hybridization. The gRNAs used according to the invention can also be modified on the level of the internucleotide bond such as for example phosphorothioates, H-phosphonates or alkyl-phosphonates, or on the level of the backbone such as for example alpha-oligonucleotides, 2′-O-alkyl ribose or peptide nucleic acids (PNA) (Egholm et al., 1992).

The gRNAs can be natural RNAs, synthetic RNAs or RNAs produced by recombination techniques. Said gRNAs can be prepared by any methods known to persons skilled in the art such as, for example, chemical synthesis, transcription in vivo or amplification techniques.

When the gRNAs are introduced into the bacterial cell in the form of one or more nucleic acids, the one or more sequences encoding the one or more gRNAs are placed under the control of an expression promoter. Said promoter can be constitutive or inducible.

When several gRNAs are used, the expression of each gRNA can be controlled by a different promoter. Preferably, the promoter used is the same for all the gRNAs. The same promoter can in a particular embodiment be used to allow the expression of several, for example of only a few, of the gRNAs intended to be expressed.

In a preferred embodiment, the one or more promoters controlling the expression of the one or more gRNAs is/are constitutive promoters.

Examples of constitutive promoters useful within the context of the present invention can be selected from the promoter of the thl gene, of the ptb gene or of the bcs operon, or a derivative thereof, preferably miniPthl, or any other promoter, well-known to persons skilled in the art, allowing the synthesis of an RNA (coding or non-coding) within Clostridium.

Examples of inducible promoters useful within the context of the present invention can be selected from the promoter of the tetA gene, of the xylA gene, of the lacI gene, or of the bgaL gene, or a derivative thereof, preferably 2tetO1 or tetO2/1. A preferred inducible promoter is tetO2/1.

The promoters controlling the expression of Cas9 and of the one or more gRNAs can be identical or different and constitutive or inducible. In a particular and preferred embodiment of the invention, only one of the promoters controlling the expression of Cas9 or of the one or more gRNAs, respectively, is an inducible promoter.

The term “nucleic acid” is intended to mean, within the meaning of the invention, any natural, synthetic, semi-synthetic or recombinant DNA or RNA molecule, optionally chemically modified (i.e., comprising unnatural bases, modified nucleotides comprising for example a modified bond, modified bases and/or modified sugars), or optimized so that the codons of the transcripts synthesized from the coding sequences are the codons most frequently found in a bacterium of the genus Clostridium for use therein. As explained above, in the case of the genus Clostridium, the optimized codons are typically codons rich in adenine (“A”) and thymine (“T”) bases.

Each of the nucleic acids present within the genetic tool according to the invention, typically the “first” nucleic acid and the “second” nucleic acid, consists of a distinct entity and corresponds for example i) to an expression cassette (or “construction”) such as a nucleic acid comprising at least one transcriptional promoter operably linked (with the meaning understood by persons skilled in the art) to one or more (coding) sequences of interest, typically to an operon comprising several coding sequences of interest whose expression products contribute to the creation of a function of interest within the bacterium, or such as a nucleic acid further comprising an activation sequence and/or transcription terminator; or ii) to a circular or linear, single- or double-stranded vector, for example a plasmid, a phage, a cosmid, an artificial or synthetic chromosome, comprising one or more expression cassettes as defined above. Preferably, the vector is a plasmid.

The expression cassettes and vectors can be constructed by conventional procedures well-known to persons skilled in the art and can comprise one or more promoters, bacterial origins of replication (ORI sequences), termination sequences, selection genes, for example antibiotic-resistance genes, and sequences (“flanking regions”) allowing the targeted insertion of the cassette or the vector.

In addition, said expression cassettes and vectors can be integrated into the genome by techniques well-known to persons skilled in the art.

ORI sequences of interest can be chosen from pIP404, pAMβ1, repH (origin of replication in C. acetobutylicum), ColE1 or rep (origin of replication in E. co/i), or any other origin of replication allowing the vector, typically the plasmid, to be maintained within a Clostridium cell.

Termination sequences of interest can be chose from those of the adc and thl genes, of the bcs operon, or of any other terminator, well-known to persons skilled in the art, for stopping transcription within Clostridium.

Selection genes of interest can be chosen from ermB, catP, bla, tetA, tetM, and any other gene for resistance to ampicillin, to erythromycin, to chloramphenicol, to thiamphenicol, to tetracycline or to any other antibiotic which can be used to select bacteria of the genus Clostridium well-known to persons skilled in the art.

A particular vector comprises one or more expression cassettes, each cassette encoding a gRNA.

In a particular embodiment, the invention relates to a genetic tool comprising as “first” nucleic acid as identified in the claims a plasmid vector whose sequence is selected from one of sequences SEQ ID NO: 5, SEQ ID NO: 6 and SEQ ID NO: 7.

In a particular embodiment, the invention relates to a genetic tool comprising as “second” or “nth” nucleic acid a plasmid vector whose sequence is selected from one of sequences SEQ ID NO: 8, SEQ ID NO: 9, SEQ ID NO: 10 and SEQ ID NO: 11.

The sequence of interest is introduced into the bacterial genome via a homologous recombination mechanism guided by a selected repair template (according to the CRISPR technology). The sequence of interest replaces the targeted portion within the bacterial genome. The recombination process thus allows the total or partial modification or deletion of the targeted portion within the genome of the bacterium or allows the insertion of nucleic acid fragments (in a particular embodiment large fragments) into the genome of the bacterium. The selected repair template can indeed comprise all or part of the targeted sequence of the bacterial genome or a more or less modified version thereof according to the nature of the desired transformation. Just like the targeted portion of DNA, the template can thus itself comprise one or more nucleic acid sequences or nucleic acid sequence portions corresponding to natural and/or synthetic, coding and/or non-coding sequences. The template can for example comprise one or more sequences or portion(s) of sequences corresponding to a gene essential to bacterial survival, in particular to the survival of bacteria of the genus Clostridium, or to one or more genes or DNA sequences whose inactivation allows the selection of bacteria of the genus Clostridium having integrated the one or more nucleic acids of interest. The template can also comprise one or more “foreign” sequences, i.e., sequences naturally absent from the genome of bacteria belonging to the genus Clostridium or from the genome of particular species of said genus. The template can also comprise a combination of sequences as described above.

Particular examples of sequences of interest are the sequences used in the experimental section. They are for example the sequences upp_del (SEQ ID NO: 12) and upp_stop (SEQ ID NO: 13).

The genetic tool according to the invention allows the repair template to guide the incorporation within the bacterial genome of bacteria of the genus Clostridium of a nucleic acid of interest, typically of a DNA sequence or sequence portion comprising at least 1 base pair (bp), preferably at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 50, 100, 1,000, 10,000, 100,000 or 1,000,000 bp, typically between 1 bp and 20 kb or between 1 bp and 10 kb, preferably between 10 bp and 20 kb or between 10 bp and 10 kb, for example between 1 bp and 2 kb.

In a particular embodiment, the DNA sequence of interest encodes at least one product of interest, preferably a product promoting the production of solvent, typically at least one protein of interest, for example an enzyme; a membrane protein such as a transporter; a transcription factor; or a combination thereof.

In a preferred embodiment, the DNA sequence of interest promotes the production of solvent and is typically selected from a sequence encoding i) an enzyme, preferably an enzyme involved in the conversion of aldehydes to alcohol, for example selected from a sequence encoding an alcohol dehydrogenase (for example a sequence selected from adh, adhE, adhE1, adhE2, bdhA, and bdhB), a sequence encoding a transferase (for example a sequence selected from ctfA, ctfB, atoA and atoB), a sequence encoding a decarboxylase (for example adc), a sequence encoding a hydrogenase (for example a sequence selected from etfA, erfB and hydA), and a combination thereof, ii) a membrane protein, for example a sequence encoding a phosphotransferase (for example a sequence selected from glcG, bglC, cbe4532, cbe4533, cbe4982, cbe4983, cbe0751), and iii) a transcription factor (for example a sequence selected from sigE, sigF, sigG, sigH, sigK).

The present invention further relates to a process for transforming and/or genetically modifying by homologous recombination a bacterium of the genus Clostridium, preferably a solventogenic bacterium of the genus Clostridium. Said process comprises a step of introduction into the bacterium of a genetic tool according to the invention as disclosed in the present application. The process can further comprise a step of obtaining the transformed bacterium, i.e., the bacterium having the one or more desired recombinations/optimizations.

A particular process according to the invention for transforming and/or genetically modifying by homologous recombination a solventogenic bacterium of the genus Clostridium comprises, in order, the following steps:

-   -   a) introduction into the bacterium of a genetic tool according         to the invention as disclosed in the present application         comprising at least one inducible promoter, and     -   b) induction of the expression of the inducible promoter for         genetically modifying the bacterium.

Introduction into the bacterium of the components (nucleic acids or gRNAs) of the genetic tool according to the invention is carried out by any direct or indirect method known to persons skilled in the art, for example by transformation, conjugation, microinjection, transfection, electroporation, etc., preferably by transformation (LUtke-Eversloh, 2014).

The induction step, when necessary, can be implemented by any method known to persons skilled in the art after introduction into the target bacterium of the genetic tool according to the invention. It is for example carried out by contacting the bacterium with a suitable substance, present in a sufficient amount, or by exposure to UV light. Said substance releases the inhibition of expression linked to the selected inducible promoter. When the selected promoter is an anhydrotetracycline (aTc)-inducible promoter, chosen from Pcm-2tetO1 and Pcm-tetO2/1, the aTc is preferably used at a concentration ranging between about 1 ng/ml and about 5000 ng/ml, preferably between about 100 ng per ml and about 500 ng/ml or between about 200 ng per ml and about 300 ng/ml, for example about 250 ng/ml.

In a particular embodiment, the process comprises one or more additional steps, subsequent to step b) when it is present, of introduction of an nth, for example a third, fourth, fifth, etc., nucleic acid encoding i) a repair template different from that or those already introduced and ii) one or more guide RNAs allowing their integration into a targeted zone of the genome of the bacterium, each additional step being preferably advantageously preceded by a step of removal of the nucleic acid encoding the repair template previously introduced, the bacterial cell then being regarded as “cleared” of said nucleic acid, and preferably of a step of removal of the one or more guide RNAs or sequences encoding the one or more guide RNAs previously introduced.

In a particularly advantageous manner and in contrast with the tools available in the prior art, the genetic tool according to the invention allows the introduction of sequences of interest of small sizes as well as large sizes, in one step, i.e., using a single nucleic acid (typically the “second” nucleic acid as disclosed in the present text) or in several steps, i.e., using several nucleic acids (typically the “second” and the one or more “nth” nucleic acids as disclosed in the present text), preferably in one step.

In particular embodiment of the invention, this “nth” nucleic acid deletes the targeted portion of the bacterial DNA or replaces it by a sequence which is shorter (for example by a sequence deleted of at least one base pair) and/or non-functional. In a particular preferred embodiment of the invention, the “second” or “nth” nucleic acid advantageously introduces into the bacterial genome a nucleic acid of interest comprising at least one base pair, and up to 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 or 13 kb.

The nucleic acids of interest can be inserted into the bacterial chromosome at identical or different regions according to the gRNAs used, and if it proves useful into a portion of the bacterial genome comprising a gene essential to bacterial survival, for example one of the genes gyrA, pfkA, hydA, crt, thl, hbd, or any other gene known to persons skilled in the art as essential to the survival of a bacterium of the genus Clostridium, and/or into a gene or a DNA sequence whose inactivation allows the selection of bacteria having integrated the one or more nucleic acids of interest, for example the upp gene.

By virtue of the invention, typically by virtue of the genetic tool and of the process according to the invention, it is now possible to modify effectively (high frequency of homologous recombination), substantially (possible to incorporate within the genome of the bacterium a nucleic acid of interest of large size) and stably (no need to maintain the transformed bacteria in contact with antibiotics) bacteria of the genus Clostridium so as to obtain transformed bacteria of interest, for example enhanced variants having a genotypic or phenotypic difference relative to the bacterium from which it is derived, typically industrially-useful bacteria, for example bacteria useful in the production of solvents or biofuels.

Another object of the invention relates to a bacterium of the genus Clostridium, typically a solventogenic bacterium of the genus Clostridium, transformed using the process and/or the genetic tool according to the invention. Such a bacterium expresses the one or more nucleic acids of interest introduced into its genome by homologous recombination using the repair template. Such a bacterium can comprise all or part of the genetic tool according to the invention, typically Cas9 or a nucleic acid encoding Cas9.

A particular bacterium of the genus Clostridium according to the invention, for example a bacterium ATCC824, transformed using the process and the genetic tool according to the invention, no longer contains the pSOL megaplasmid.

In a particular embodiment, the bacterium of the genus Clostridium according to the invention, transformed using the process and the genetic tool according to the invention, is able to produce one or more solvents only by virtue of the expression of the one or more nucleic acids of interest introduced voluntarily into its genome.

The invention also relates to a kit for transforming and/or genetically modifying a bacterium of the genus Clostridium, comprising all or part of the components of the genetic tool as disclosed in the present text, typically i) a first nucleic acid encoding Cas9, wherein the Cas9 coding sequence is placed under the control of a promoter, and ii) at least a second nucleic acid encoding a repair template allowing, by a homologous recombination mechanism, the replacement of a portion of the Cas9-targeted bacterial DNA by a sequence of interest, and optionally one or more inducers adapted to the selected inducible promoter(s) optionally used within the tool.

A particular kit according to the invention allows the expression of a Cas9 protein comprising a tag.

The kits according to the invention can further comprise one or more consumables such as a culture medium, at least one competent bacterium of the genus Clostridium (i.e., packaged for use in the transformation), at least one gRNA, a Cas9 protein, one or more selection molecules, or a set of instructions.

The invention typically relates to a kit for the implementation of the transformation process disclosed in the present text or for the production of solvent(s) (at least one solvent) using a bacterium of the genus Clostridium.

The invention finally relates to the potential uses of the genetic tool, or of the process, or of the kit according to the invention, for transforming and/or genetically modifying a bacterium of the genus Clostridium, typically a solventogenic bacterium of the genus Clostridium, for example to generate enhanced variants of a bacterium of the genus Clostridium.

Finally, the invention relates to the potential uses of the genetic tool, of the process, of the kit or of a bacterium of the genus Clostridium transformed according to the invention, in particular for the production of solvents or biofuels, or of mixtures thereof, typically on an industrial scale. Solvents likely to be produced are typically acetone, butanol, ethanol, isopropanol or a mixture thereof, typically an ethanol/isopropanol, butanol/isopropanol, or ethanol/butanol mixture, preferably an isopropanol/butanol mixture.

In a particular embodiment, the ratio of the ethanol/isopropanol mixture is at least equal to ¼. Said ratio is preferably between ⅓ and 1, and more preferably is equal to 1.

In a particular embodiment, the ratio of the ethanol/butanol mixture is at least equal to ¼. Said ratio is preferably between ⅓ and 1, and more preferably is equal to 1.

In a particular embodiment, the ratio of the isopropanol/butanol mixture is at least equal to ¼. Said ratio is preferably between ⅓ and 1, and more preferably is equal to 1.

The use of transformed bacteria according to the invention typically allows the yearly production on an industrial scale of at least 100 tons of acetone, of at least 100 tons of ethanol, of at least 1000 tons of isopropanol, of at least 1800 tons of butanol, or of at least 40,000 tons of a mixture thereof.

The purpose of the examples and figures hereinafter are to more fully illustrate the invention without limiting the scope thereof.

FIGURES

FIG. 1 : Metabolism of solventogenic strains of Clostridium. The ABE strains produce acetone, ethanol and butanol whereas the IBE strains possess the adh gene converting acetone to isopropanol. Modified from Lee et al., 2012.

FIG. 2 : CRISPR mode of action. Mali et al.

FIG. 3 : Use of CRISPR-Cas9 for genome editing. The double-strand break is created by the Cas9 nuclease, directed by the gRNA. Repair of this break by homologous recombination allows the introduction into the genome of the modifications contained in the repair template. Figure modified from Ann Ran et al., 2013.

FIG. 4 : upp targeting plasmids. pIP404, origin of replication in C. acetobutylicum. ColE1, origin of replication in E. co/i. catP, chloramphenicol acetyltransferase gene (chloramphenicol/thiamphenicol resistance gene). CDS, coding sequence.

FIG. 5 : pSOL targeting plasmid. pIP404, origin of replication in C. acetobutylicum. ColE1, origin of replication in E. co/i. catP, chloramphenicol acetyltransferase gene (chloramphenicol/thiamphenicol resistance gene). CDS, coding sequence.

FIG. 6 : pEC500E-miniPthl-Cas9 vector map. pAMβ1, origin of replication in C. acetobutylicum. rep, origin of replication in E. coli. bla, β-lactamase gene (ampicillin resistance). ermB, methylase (erythromycin resistance). CDS, coding sequence.

FIG. 7 : sequencing of the zone targeted by cas9 in the wild-type strain and in the transformant obtained. NC_003030, sequence of Clostridium acetobutylicum ATCC824 (GenBank); crRNA, site recognized by the gRNA; PAM, protospacer adjacent motif, playing a role in Cas9 binding. CDS, coding sequence. SEQ ID NO: 22 corresponds to the NC_003030 fragment appearing in FIG. 7 and SEQ ID NO: 23 corresponds to the fragments appearing in FIG. 7 of the sequences identified as “upp_stop repair template”, “ATCC824” and “ATCC824 upp-”, respectively.

FIG. 8 : Amplification results.

-   -   A: catP_fwd×catP_rev (expected size: 709 bp)     -   B: RH_ctfB_R×V-CTFA-CAC2707_R (expected size: 351 bp)     -   1: 2-Log marker (NEB). 2: H₂O, negative control. 3:         Non-transformed ATCC824. 4: ATCC824 transformed with         pEC500E-miniPthl-cas9. 5 & 6: ATCC824 transformed with         pEC500E-miniPthl-cas9 and pEC750C (2 independent transformants).         7 & 8: ATCC824 transformed with pEC500E-miniPthl-cas9 and         pEC750C-gRNA_adhE (2 independent transformants).

FIG. 9 : Detection of α-amylase activity of strains derived from ATCC824. 1: ATCC824; 2: ATCC824 transformed with pEC500E and pEC750C; 3: ATCC824 transformed with pEC500E-miniPthl-cas9 and pEC750C; 4: ATCC824 transformed with pEC500E and pEC750C-gRNA_adhE; 5: ATCC824 transformed with pEC500E-miniPthl-cas9 and pEC750C-gRNA_adhE.

FIG. 10 : Fermentation results of the wild-type strain and of a transformant (two technical replicates).

FIG. 11 : A/B. Inducible expression plasmids for cas9. repH, origin of replication in C. acetobutylicum. ColE1, origin of replication in E. coli. ermB, methylase (erythromycin resistance). tetR, gene encoding the transcriptional repressor TetR. CDS, coding sequence.

FIG. 12 : Effect of induction on expression starting from promoters Pcm-2tetO1 and Pcm-tetO2/1.

The promoters were placed downstream of the gusA gene, and GusA activity was measured in C. acetobutylicum ATCC824 cells, in the absence or in the presence of 100 ng/mL of aTc. Modified from Dong et al., 2012.

FIG. 13 : Effect of aTc concentration on the viability of transformants containing pEC750C-gRNA_upp.

FIG. 14 : Generation of 5-FU-resistant mutants. Serial dilutions of liquid cultures are deposited on various media. Only the transformants in which homologous recombination events allowed the insertion of the repair template are able to grow on 2YTG+5-FU. The white arrows indicate the colonies selected for the following experiments. ND, not diluted.

FIG. 15 : PCR analysis of the upp_del transformants.

-   -   A. Genetic organization around the upp gene. The coding         sequences are indicated by arrows.

The grey rectangle indicates the region absent from the upp_del template. The primers used are represented by triangles. CDS, coding sequence. PAM, protospacer adjacent motif, playing a role in Cas9 binding.

-   -   B. Amplification results. M: 2-Log marker (NEB). 1: H₂O,         negative control. 2: Non-transformed ATCC824.     -   3: ATCC824 transformed with pFW0001-Pcm-2tetO1-cas9 and         pEC750CgRNA_upp-upp_del before exposure to aTc. 4 & 5: ATCC824         transformed with pFW0001-Pcm-2tetO1-cas9 and         pEC750CgRNA_upp-upp_del before exposure to aTc, isolated on         2YTG+5-FU (2 independent transformants).

FIG. 16 : sequencing of the cas9-targeted zone in colonies isolated on 2YTG+5-FU.

NC_003030, sequence of Clostridium acetobutylicum ATCC824 (GenBank); crRNA, site recognized by the gRNA; PAM, protospacer adjacent motif, playing a role in Cas9 binding. CDS, coding sequence. SEQ ID NO: 24 corresponds to the fragment of the genomic sequence of strain ATCC824 appearing in FIG. 16 and SEQ ID NO: 25 corresponds to the fragments appearing in FIG. 16 of the sequences identified as “upp_stop template”, “clone pFW0001-Pcm-2tetO1-cas9-pEC750C-gRNA_upp-upp_stop1” and “clone pFW0001-Pcm-tetO2/1-cas9-pEC750C-gRNA_upp-upp_stopl” and “clone pFW0001-Pcm-tetO2/1-cas9-pEC750C-gRNA_upp-uppstop2”, respectively.

FIG. 17 : The pEC750C-gRNA_upp-Δupp::ipa8 plasmid. pIP404, origin of replication in C. acetobutylicum. ColE1, origin of replication in E. co/i. acetyltransferase (chloramphenicol/thiamphenicol resistance gene). CDS, coding sequence. RHA/LHA: flanking sequences of the upp gene (ca_c2879).

FIG. 18 : Amplification results with primers CA_C2877 and CA_C2882. M, 2-log size marker (NEB). P, pEC750C-gRNA_upp-Δupp::ipa8; WT, ATCC 824.

FIG. 19 : Production of solvents by ATCC 824 and by mutants upp_del and Δupp::ipa8. The error bars represent the standard deviation of experiments carried out in duplicate. The data obtained for upp_del and Δupp::ipa8 are the averages obtained for two biologically independent mutants in each case.

FIG. 20 : Measurement of endoglucanase activity on agar of various strains expressing endoglucanases CelA (pWUR3) CelD (pWUR 4) and of the control strain expressing the empty plasmid. These various strains are incubated for 48 h on petri dishes containing 0.2% CMC. A hydrolysis halo visualized by Congo red staining characterizes the endoglucanase activity of each strain. No halo is detectable on the control strain whereas it is clearly visible in the strains expressing endoglucanase CelA or CelD.

FIG. 21 : The pSEC500E_X_Cas9 plasmid. pAMBI, origin of replication in C. beijerinckii; PxylB, xylB promoter; ColE1 origin, origin of replication in E. co/i; AmpR, ampicillin resistance gene; PermB, ermB gene promoter; ermB, erythromycin resistance gene; 2 micron ori, origin of replication in yeast; URA3, auxotrophy marker.

FIG. 22 : The pS_celASI plasmid. HS1 and HS2, homology sequences; aad9, spectinomycin resistance gene; pCB102, origin of replication in C. beijerinckii; ColE1 origin, origin of replication in E. coli. PeglA, eglA gene promoter.

FIG. 23 : Selection of recombinant strains C. beijerinckii NCIMB8052 (pEC500E_Xcas9, pS_celAS1) on CGM agar containing increasing concentrations ofxylose.

FIG. 24 : Verification by PCR of strain NCIMB8052 and of strain NCIMB8052 having integrated the celA gene. M, GeneRuler 1kb DNA Ladder (ThermoFisher).

EXAMPLES

The inventors tested the genetic tool disclosed and claimed in the present text on two targets: the upp and adhE genes.

Inactivation of the upp gene The first target chosen makes it possible to validate the genetic modification technique designed, by a simple screening. The upp gene encodes a uracil phosphoribosyltransferase. This enzyme forms uracil monophosphate (UMP) from uracil, but also forms 5-fluorouracil monophosphate (5-FUMP) from 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). 5-FUMP is a toxic compound for the cell which blocks RNA synthesis. Consequently, a bacterium containing the upp gene in its genome will not be able to grow on medium containing 5-FU, in contrast with a strain not expressing this gene.

Targeting this gene makes it possible to determine, simply and quickly, by simple phenotypic observation, if the modification strategy is effective. Three plasmids for targeting upp were constructed (see FIG. 4 +SEQ ID NO: 9, 10 and 11). All three contain the same gRNA targeting the gene, and two of them also contain different repair templates for showing the abilities of the tool to create deletions or point mutations:

-   -   The upp_del template (SEQ ID NO: 12) contains two 500-nucleotide         (nt) fragments located 150-nt from each side of the break site         determined by the gRNA. The use of this template to repair the         break causes a 300-nt deletion within the coding sequence of the         upp gene so that the latter will then encode an inactive         protein.     -   The upp_stop template (SEQ ID NO: 13) contains two 650-nt         fragments located on each side of the break site, which are         modified at the gRNA recognition site by the presence of         nonsense mutations (inducing the replacement of a codon encoding         an amino acid by a stop codon) in such a way that Cas9 can no         longer target the gene which will encode an incomplete and         inactive protein.         Loss of the pSOL Plasmid

The second target chosen is of interest in the fermentation process: the set of genes involved in solventogenesis, in particular adhE, is located on the pSOL megaplasmid, and it has been shown that its loss abolishes the production of acetone and butanol. After having removed these fermentation pathways using the pSOL targeting plasmid (see FIG. 5 ), it is possible to reintroduce the genes of interest directly into the genome. In order to obtain a strain no longer containing pSOL, a plasmid for targeting adhE was constructed. The inventors showed that pSOL does not contain essential functions for the cell so that the cell will be able to survive without its presence.

Constitutive Expression of Cas9 in C. acetobutylicum ATCC824

The chosen strategy requires the concomitant use of two plasmids:

-   -   the vector for constitutive expression of the nuclease, derived         from the pEC500E plasmid: pEC500E-miniPthl-Cas9 (see FIG. 6 +SEQ         ID NO: 5);     -   one of the targeting vectors, which determine the nuclease break         site and optionally allow the repair of the break, derived from         pEC750C:     -   pEC750C-gRNA_upp (SEQ ID NO: 9), containing the gRNA targeting         upp;     -   pEC750C-gRNA_upp-upp_del (SEQ ID NO: 10), containing the gRNA         targeting upp and the upp_del template;     -   pEC750C-gRNA_upp-upp_stop (SEQ ID NO: 11), containing the gRNA         targeting upp and the upp_stop template;     -   pEC750C-gRNA_adhE (SEQ ID NO: 8), containing the gRNA targeting         adhE.

The pEC500E-miniPthl-Cas9 expression vector was introduced into strain ATCC824, as well as a control plasmid corresponding an empty vector (pEC500E). The two strains obtained were then transformed with the targeting vectors, derived from vector pEC750C, used as control. The results of this second transformation step are indicated below in Table 1.

TABLE 1 transformation results. pEC750C- pEC750C- pEC750C- gRNA_upp- gRNA_upp- pEC750C- pEC750C gRNA_upp upp_del upp_stop gRNA_adhE pEC500E ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ pEC500E- ++ − − + ++ miniPthl-cas9 ++, numerous transformants obtained (between 10² and 10³ colonies obtained/transformation); −, no transformants obtained.

The transformation results obtained indicate that Cas9 is functional. Indeed, when the nuclease is expressed and the upp gene is targeted by the gRNA, no transformant is obtained, due to the break caused in the genomic DNA and to the inability of the bacterium to carry out the repair of the genome (transformation with pEC500E-miniPthl-cas9 and pEC750C-gRNA_upp) in the absence of repair template.

Targeting of upp

The results obtained when the targeting vectors are introduced into the strain containing pEC500E show that the genome of strain ATCC824 does not contain a cas9 homologue, since transformants are obtained with each targeting vector.

A transformant containing pEC500E-miniPthl-cas9 and pEC750C-gRNA_upp-upp_stop was then re-plated several times on a nonselective medium so that it loses the plasmids it contained. Once the colonies were cleared of their plasmids and sensitive to antibiotics, the upp gene (SEQ ID NO: 3) was sequenced (see FIG. 7 ).

The desired modifications are indeed present. The CRISPR-Cas9 genetic tool comprising the introduction of two plasmids and the expression of the cas9 gene by a strong and constitutive promoter is thus indeed functional.

Targeting of adhE

Transformants are obtained during transformations of the wild-type strain with the pEC500E-miniPthl-cas9 and pEC750C_gRNA_adhE plasmids. Since cas9 is active, this result indicates that a break in the pSOL megaplasmid does not affect the viability of ATCC824.

In order to confirm the possible loss of pSOL, various tests were performed:

-   -   PCR detection of a gene present on pSOL: ctfB         -   PCR using catP_fwd×catP_rev allows detection of the             thiamphenicol resistance gene, present on the pEC750C             plasmids. Its detection confirms that the targeting vectors             are present.         -   PCR using RH_ctfB_R×V-CTFA-CAC2707_R allows detection of a             portion of the ctfB gene, present on the pSOL megaplasmid,             and makes it possible to know if the latter is present in             the cell.

Amplification seems to show that the pSOL megaplasmid is no longer present in the clones transformed with pEC500E-miniPthl-cas9 and pEC750C-gRNA_adhE (see FIG. 8 ).

-   -   Detection of an enzymatic activity encoded by a gene present on         pSOL

Among the genes contained on the pSOL megaplasmid, amyP encodes an extracellular enzyme with α-amylase activity. This activity can be detected on solid medium containing starch and glucose (Sabathé et al., 2002). Dilutions of liquid cultures were deposited on an agar plate containing 0.2% glucose and 2% starch and incubated 72 h at 37° C. The α-amylase activity is then visualized by iodine staining. The clear halos around the colonies of bacteria indicate the presence of α-amylase activity. The absence of activity around ATCC824 containing pEC500E-miniPthl-cas9 and pEC750C-gRNA_adhE indicates that the amyP gene is not expressed in this strain, confirming that the megaplasmid is no longer present (see FIG. 9 ).

-   -   Fermentation results

The ATCC824 wild-type strain and a transformant were grown for 24 h in Gapes medium in order to establish the fermentation results of the two strains. The fermentation results obtained show a reduction in ethanol production and an abolition of butanol and acetate production due to the absence of the adhE, adhE1 and adc genes (present on the pSOL megaplasmid) in the transformant (see FIG. 10 ).

Cas9 is thus capable of acting on the chromosome or on the natural plasmid of strain ATCC824, which makes it possible to broaden its action to the chromosome and to any extra-chromosomal genetic material present in the strain (plasmid, bacteriophage, etc.).

Inducible Expression of Cas9 in C. acetobutylicum ATCC824

In order to enable the homologous recombination events between the genome and the repair templates, it is necessary to increase the number of cells in which the nuclease is active (up to 103 when strain ATCC824 containing pEC500E-miniPthl-cas9 is transformed with a targeting vector). To that end, a system in which nuclease expression is controlled is necessary. Two vectors in which the cas9 gene is placed under the control of an anhydrotetracycline-inducible promoter were constructed, derived from the vector pFW0001:

-   -   pFW0001-Pcm-2tetO1-cas9 (see FIG. 11A+SEQ ID NO: 6);     -   pFW0001-Pcm-tetO2/1-cas9 (see FIG. 11B+SEQ ID NO: 7).

The promoters controlling cas9 expression contain operator sequences, tetO1 and tetO2, to which the transcriptional repressor TetR is bound. This repression is released by the presence of anhydrotetracycline (aTc). This system allows controlled expression, with little leakage. In the presence of aTc, synthesis is higher starting from promoter Pcm-2tetO1 (see FIG. 12 ).

Transformation of C. acetobutylicum ATCC824:

The expression vectors and the empty vector (pFW0001) were introduced into ATCC824. Subsequently, the following plasmids were introduced into each type of transformant (see Table 2):

-   -   pEC750C-gRNA_upp, containing the gRNA targeting upp;     -   pEC750C-gRNA_upp-upp_del, containing the gRNA targeting upp and         the upp_del template;     -   pEC750C-gRNA_upp-upp_stop, containing the gRNA targeting upp and         the upp_stop template;

The transformed colonies were streaked on various solid media, at different dilutions:

-   -   2YTG+erythromycin to verify cell viability, dilution by a factor         of 10⁶;     -   2YTG+erythromycin+thiamphenicol to select the transformants;     -   2YTG+erythromycin+thiamphenicol+aTc (200 ng/mL) to select the         transformants in the presence of the inducer.

TABLE 2 number of colonies obtained on each type of medium for each transformation. pEC750C- pEC750C- pEC750C pEC750C-gRNA_upp gRNA_upp-upp_del gRNA_upp-upp_stop ery ery ery ery ery thiam ery thiam ery thiam ery thiam ery thiam aTc ery thiam aTc ery thiam aTc ery thiam aTc (10⁻⁶) (ND) (ND) (10⁻⁶) (ND) (ND) (10⁻⁶) (ND) (ND) (10⁻⁶) (ND) (ND) pFW0001  78  26 — 126  83 —  87 12 —  61 13 — pFW0001- 229 129 3 157  27 0 232  5 0 169  7 0 Pcm-2tetO1-cas9 pFW0001- 210 400 3 367 130 0 227 21 0 177 18 0 Pcm-tet:O2/1-cas9 ery, erythromycin. thiam, thiamphenicol. aTc, anhydrotetracycline. Between brackets, dilution factors. ND, not diluted. —, not tested.

A toxic effect of aTc is observed, since few transformants are obtained when it is present, even when the empty targeting vector (pEC750C, control) is used. As expected, no transformant is obtained when a pEC750C containing the gRNA_upp cassette is introduced into a cell expressing cas9, on medium containing aTc. On the other hand, numerous transformants are obtained for each plasmid combination on medium without aTc, indicating that cas9 is not expressed.

Cas9 Expression in the Presence of aTc:

The various transformants obtained on plates containing erythromycin and thiamphenicol were re-plated on the same type of medium, then used to inoculate liquid precultures containing both antibiotics. These precultures were then used to inoculate other liquid cultures containing varying concentrations of aTc in order to determine if the system is functional.

Induction of Cas9:

Three transformants were used to analyse the ability to induce cas9 expression in the presence of aTc:

-   -   ATCC824 containing pFW0001 and pEC750C-gRNA_upp;     -   ATCC824 containing pFW0001-Pcm-2tetO1-cas9 and pEC750C-gRNA_upp;     -   ATCC824 containing pFW0001-Pcm-tetO2/1-cas9 and         pEC750C-gRNA_upp.

Liquid media containing erythromycin, thiamphenicol and increasing concentrations of aTc were inoculated from liquid precultures of these transformants (see FIG. 13 ). The ability of the cells to grow is evaluated by measurement of the optical densities after 72 h of culture.

The transformant not expressing the nuclease is affected little or not at all by the presence of aTc. On the other hand, even at low aTc concentrations, the transformant containing the plasmid expressing cas9 via promoter Pcm-2tetO1 (pFW0001-Pcm-2tetO1-cas9) and the plasmid containing only the gRNA (pEC750C-gRNA_upp) exhibit a significant growth delay. The transformant containing the plasmid expressing cas9 via promoter Pcm-tetO2/1 (pFW0001-Pcm-tetO2/1-cas9) and the plasmid containing only the gRNA (pEC750C-gRNA_upp) is not affected at low aTc concentrations.

However, starting from 150 ng/mL a strong growth delay is observed, and no growth is observed at 300 ng/mL. Promoter Pcm-tetO2/1 thus seems to allow a better repression of the expression than Pcm-2tetO1 in the absence of inducer.

Generation of Mutants

Liquid cultures of the transformant containing the targeting plasmids for repairing double-strand breaks were also prepared, in the absence or in the presence (100 ng/mL) of aTc. The transformants used contained one of the 12 plasmid combinations appearing in Table 3.

TABLE 3 Plasmid combinations present in the transformants. Expression plasmid Targeting plasmid pFW0001 pEC750C pFW0001-Pcm-2tetO1-cas9 × pEC750C-gRNA_upp pFW0001-Pcm-tetO2/1-cas9 pEC750C-gRNA_upp-upp_del pEC750C-gRNA_upp-upp_stop

After 72 h of culture, aliquots were deposited on various solid media:

-   -   2YTG containing thiamphenicol and erythromycin;     -   2YTG containing thiamphenicol, erythromycin, and 100 ng/mL aTc;     -   2YTG containing 5-fluorouracil.

Only the transformants in which homologous recombination events allowed the insertion of the repair template are able to grow on 2YTG+5-FU (see FIG. 14 ).

Analysis of the Upp_Del Transformants:

The clones isolated on 2YTG+5-FU were analysed by PCR (see FIG. 15 ).

PCR using catP_fwd×catP_rev allows detection of the thiamphenicol resistance gene, present on the pEC750C plasmids. Its detection confirms that the targeting vectors are present.

PCR using LHA upp_fwd×RHA_upp_rev allows amplification of the upp gene as well as the flanking regions. The primers appearing below were used in the construction of the upp_del repair template (see FIG. 15 +SEQ ID NO: 14-21):

TABLE 4 Name Sequence (5′-3′) catP_fwd GTGGGCAAGTTGAAAAATTCAC catP_rev TTAACTATTTATCAATTCCTGCAATTCG RH_ctfB_R CTTGAGACTTTGCCGTGAGGG V_ctfA_CAC2707_R TAGTTGGAATGGGCGCTAGT LHA_upp_fwd ATGAAGATAGCAATAGGTAGTGATCATGC RHA_upp_rev ACGCTTATATTATCAATATTATTTAGCTT TATAG upp_template_fwd TGTCCAACCTTAGCAGCAGG upp_template_rev GTAGAAGAAGTAGCAATGCTAATGGC

PCR using upp template_fwd×upp template_rev allows amplification of an internal fragment of the upp gene, absent from the upp_del repair template.

The results obtained confirm the deletion within the upp gene in the transformants analysed.

Analysis of the upp_Stop Mutants:

The upp gene was sequenced in three clones isolated on 2YTG+5-FU after exposure to aTc (see FIG. 16 ):

-   -   One containing the plasmid expressing cas9 via promoter         Pcm-2tetO1 (pFW0001-Pcm-2tetO1-cas9) and the plasmid containing         the gRNA as well as the upp_stop repair template         (pEC750CgRNA_upp-upp_stop);     -   Two containing the plasmid expressing cas9 via promoter         Pcm-tetO2/1 (pFW0001-Pcm-tetO2/1-cas9) and the plasmid         containing the gRNA as well as the upp_stop repair template         (pEC750CgRNA_upp-upp_stop).

The strategy aimed at developing a genetic modification system by the use of the cas9 gene under the control of an inducible promoter and of the gRNA present in a second plasmid is thus functional. Compared with the use of the constitutive promoter miniPthl, the induction of the cas9 gene makes it possible to control the action of the enzyme and to facilitate the selection of transformants having undergone the desired modifications.

Replacement of the upp Gene by the Operon Ipa8

The modification made consists of the insertion within the C. acetobutylicum ATCC 824 genome of the operon ipa8 containing the adh gene from C. beijerinckii DSM6423 (allowing the conversion of acetone to isopropanol) and the adc, ctfA, ctfB genes of strain ATCC 824 (allowing the re-assimilation of the acids produced and the formation of acetone) under the control of the constitutive promoter of the thl gene. This 3614-bp operon is inserted in place of the upp gene.

A repair template made up of the operon flanked by 1-kb sequences located on each side of the upp gene was inserted into the pEC750-gRNA_upp plasmid to obtain the pEC750C-gRNA_upp-Δupp::ipa8 plasmid (see FIG. 17 and SEQ ID NO: 26).

This plasmid was introduced into competent ATCC 824 cells containing the pFW0001-Pcm-tetO2/1-cas9 plasmid. The induction of cas9 expression was carried out on 2YTG medium containing thiamphenicol, erythromycin, and the inducer aTc.

The colonies obtained were analysed by PCR with primer pair CA_C2877 and CA_C2882 which allows the amplification of a 2720-bp product in strain ATCC 824:

CA_C2877: (SEQ ID NO: 27) 5′-CTTTTTAAAAAAGTTAAATAAGGAAGG-3′; CA_C2882: (SEQ ID NO: 28) 5′-GTTTAACTTAAGTTACAGAAAAGCTAGG-3′.

The results of PCR assays carried out on the various controls and on 4 independent colonies obtained after induction confirm the replacement of the upp gene by the operon ipa8 (FIG. 18 ).

Fermentations were carried out in Gapes medium (Gapes et al., 1996) for 72 h at 34° C. and 150 rpm on the mutants obtained, as well as on the WT strain and Δupp mutants used as controls. The fermentation supernatants were analysed by HPLC using a 0.5 g/L propanol solution as internal standard. Carbohydrate concentrations were quantified on an Aminex® HXP-87P column (Biorad, 300 mm×7.8 mm) equipped with a refractive index detector (Varian 350 RI). The column temperature was 80° C. and the eluent consisted of sulphuric acid at a flow rate of 0.4 mL/min (Spectra System RI 150).

The results obtained show that the Δupp::ipa8 mutants are able to reduce acetone to isopropanol, in contrast with the WT strain or a Δupp mutant (FIG. 19 ).

Insertion of the celA Gene into the Genome of Clostridium beijerinckii NCIMB8052

The modification made consists of the insertion within the C. beijerinckii NCIMB8052 genome of the celA gene from Neocallimastix patriciarum under the control of the eglA promoter from Clostridium saccharobutylicum NCP262. This gene encodes an enzyme capable of degrading a cellulose substrate, called CMC (carboxymethyl cellulose). The gene and its promoter, 1667 bp in size, are inserted after the hbd gene, and allows the strain to degrade CMC (FIG. 20 , Lopez-Contreras et al., 2001).

To carry out this insertion, two plasmids were used:

-   -   the pEC500E_X_cas9 plasmid: expressing the cas9 gene under the         control of the xylB inducible promoter from Clostridium         difficile 630 (Nariya et al., 2011) (see FIG. 21 and SEQ ID NO:         29).     -   the pS_XR_celAS1 plasmid expressing a guide RNA under the         control of the xylB promoter and targeting the hbd gene from C.         beijerinckii NCIMB8052. The plasmid also contains a repair         template consisting of the celA gene under the control of the         egl2 promoter, flanked by two regions of homology of 1001 and         1017 base pairs located on each side of the region targeted by         the guide RNA. (See FIG. 22 and SEQ ID NO: 30).

These two plasmids were introduced sequentially into NCIMB8052. The induction of cas9 expression was carried out on CGM (6.25 g/L yeast extract; 0.5 g/L MgSO₄ 7H₂0; 0.95 g/L KH₂HPO₄; 0.95 g/L K₂HPO₄; 0.013 g/L MnSO₄ 7H₂0; 0.013 g/L FeSO₄ 7H₂0; 1.25 g/L NaCl; 2.5 g/L (NH₄)₂SO₄; 2.5 g/L asparagine) containing spectinomycin and erythromycin as well as increasing concentrations of xylose inducer (FIG. 24 ).

The colonies obtained after induction on CGM containing 6% xylose were analysed by PCR with primer pair Cbei_325_F and Cbei_325_R which allows the amplification of a 2070-base pair product in strain NCIMB8052 and a 3718-base pair product in the case of integration of the celA gene:

Cbei_325_F (celA) (SEQ ID NO: 31) 5′-AGATAATTATGAAGTTAATCCTTAG-3′; Cbei_326_R (celA) (SEQ ID NO: 32) 5′-CATTTGCTTTCAGGTCTTCTTTTGCTG-3′.

The results of the PCR assays carried out on the control strain and on an independent colony obtained after induction confirm the insertion of the celA gene into NCIMB8052 (FIG. 25 ).

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We claim:
 1. A process for transforming by homologous recombination a solventogenic bacterium of the genus Clostridium, characterized in that it comprises a step of introduction into the bacterium of a genetic tool allowing the transformation by homologous recombination of a solventogenic bacterium of the genus Clostridium, characterized in that it comprises: a first nucleic acid encoding at least Cas9, wherein the Cas9 coding sequence is placed under the control of a promoter, and at least a second nucleic acid containing a repair template allowing, by a homologous recombination mechanism, the replacement of a portion of the Cas9-targeted bacterial DNA by a sequence of interest, and in that i) at least one of said nucleic acids further encodes one or more guide RNAs (gRNAs), or ii) the genetic tool further comprises one or more guide RNAs, each guide RNA comprising a Cas9-enzyme-binding RNA structure and a sequence complementary to the targeted portion of the bacterial DNA.
 2. The process according to claim 1, characterized in that it comprises the following steps: a) introduction into the bacterium of said genetic tool, and b) induction of the expression of the inducible promoter for genetically modifying the bacterium.
 3. The process according to claim 1, characterized in that it comprises one or more additional steps, subsequent to step b) when it is present, of introduction of an nth nucleic acid encoding i) a repair template different from that or those already introduced and ii) one or more guide RNAs allowing their integration into a targeted zone of the genome of the bacterium, each additional step being preceded by a step of removal of the nucleic acid encoding the repair template previously introduced, and preferably of removal of the one or more guide RNAs or sequences encoding the one or more guide RNAs previously introduced.
 4. A solventogenic bacterium of the genus Clostridium transformed using the process according to claim
 1. 5. A method of producing a solvent or a mixture of solvents comprising culturing a solventogenic bacterium according to claim 4 and producing said solvent or mixture of solvents.
 6. The method according to claim 5, wherein said solvent or mixture of solvents is acetone, butanol, ethanol, isopropanol or a mixture thereof. 